Ch 8: Peasants, Zamindars and the State

This section is critical for terminology. UPSC frequently tests terms related to cultivators like *khud-kashta* (resident cultivators with hereditary land rights) and *pahi-kashta* (non-resident cultivators). Understand the concept of *jins-i kamil* or 'perfect crops' (e.g., cotton, sugarcane) which were encouraged by the state due to higher revenue yields. The chapter also details the two major crop cycles, *kharif* (autumn) and *rabi* (spring), and the state's efforts in promoting agriculture, like the Shah Nahr in Punjab. Focus on the sources of information: chronicles and documents from the Mughal court, especially the Ain-i Akbari.

Focus on the social structure of the village. Key roles include the *muqaddam* or *mandal* (village headman), who was responsible for collecting revenue, and the *patwari* (village accountant). Understand the composition and function of the village panchayat, which was an assembly of elders representing various castes and communities. Note the existence of a distinct group of lower-caste agricultural labourers. The concept of the village as a 'little republic' is nuanced here; it was internally stratified by caste and gender, and was an integral part of the larger state structure. Distinguish between artisans paid with a share of the harvest (*jajmani* system) and those paid in cash.

This section provides social context. Women were crucial to the rural economy, working alongside men in fields and post-harvest activities. Note their specific roles, such as sowing, weeding, and threshing. While they were vital economic contributors, societal norms based on patriarchy limited their rights. Landed property was generally inherited by men, but women had the right to inherit property in some specific contexts, such as the absence of male heirs. The high mortality rates sometimes led to a high value being placed on women as reproducers and labourers.

UPSC often asks about the relationship between the state and peripheral communities. Forest dwellers, termed *jangli*, were not isolated. Their livelihood included hunting, gathering forest produce, and shifting agriculture (*jhum*). They played a vital role in supply chains, providing items like honey, lac, and elephants. The state often perceived forests as a source of rebellion, so control was important. Forest products were often given as tribute (*peshkash*) to the state. The expansion of agriculture led to conflicts between peasants and forest dwellers.

This section is crucial for understanding the Mughal power structure. Zamindars were a class with superior rights in land, not necessarily direct cultivation. Their power stemmed from their control over resources (*milkiyat*), which was hereditary. They performed certain services (*khidmat*) for the state, such as revenue collection, and in return received a share of the revenue. They commanded their own armed contingents, including fortresses (*qilachas*) and infantry (*piyada*). The relationship between zamindars and the state was one of cooperation, but also potential conflict. Distinguish them from the imperial officials like *jagirdars*.

Focus on the mechanics of revenue assessment and collection. The office of the *diwan* was responsible for supervising the fiscal system. Key terms are *jama* (the assessed amount of revenue) and *hasil* (the actual amount collected). The *amil-guzar* or revenue collector was a crucial functionary. Understand Akbar's system of land classification into four types: *polaj* (annually cultivated), *parauti* (left fallow for a short time), *chachar* (fallow for 3-4 years), and *banjar* (uncultivated for 5+ years). This system allowed for flexible tax rates based on productivity.

This section explains the economic impact of global trade on the Mughal Empire. The influx of silver from the New World (via Europe) in the 16th and 17th centuries greatly expanded the money supply in India. This facilitated the monetization of the economy, especially the payment of land revenue in cash. The availability of silver coins (*rupiya*) increased, which helped both commercial activities and state revenue collection. This monetary expansion is a key feature of the Mughal economy, linking it to global trade networks.

This is the most important primary source for the period. Understand its structure and limitations. The Ain-i Akbari is part of a larger project, the *Akbar Nama*. It is divided into five 'books' (*daftars*). The first three are crucial for UPSC: the *manzil-abadi* (concerning the imperial household), the *sipah-abadi* (covering the military and civil administration, including the *mansabdari* system), and the *mulk-abadi* (dealing with the fiscal side, providing detailed statistics on revenue rates for various provinces or *subas*). Be aware of its limitations: data was not collected uniformly from all provinces and had a top-down, imperial perspective.